Chapter 8: Tools to Achieve Desired Results

"The only way to determine the most appropriate strategy for particular situations is for the manager to begin implementing natural experiments in the field."

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This chapter presents a Forest Service perspective on a general strategy for improving the long-term condition of the forests in Arizona and New Mexico at the forest and district level. The Forest Service has authority for stewardship of the land–maintaining habitat for wildlife species, providing recreational opportunities, and managing commodity uses; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and state game and fish departments are responsible for managing species populations. The approach advocated in this report blends vegetation management, where and when appropriate, with natural forest processes. The best opportunity to maintain and improve forest soils, watershed conditions, recreation opportunities, wildlife habitats, indeed, all attributes of the forest ecosystem, is through sound vegetation management. Southwestern forests are indeed treasures; their management is both an art and a science.

There are many different ideas over what constitutes a healthy forest; opinions of how our federal lands should be managed differ even more. The strategy presented here is largely based on three premises which enjoy some general agreement (e.g., Sampson et al. 1995):

1. Over the last century, there have been rather dramatic changes in the structures of Southwestern forests (Figure 8.1).

2. The demand for aesthetic values from Southwest forests will continue to increase. People prefer to see large trees and open stands (Brown and Daniel 1984). Although they dislike views of dead and dying forests, people can appreciate the value of snags and top-killed trees for wildlife (Baker and Rabin 1988, Orland et al. 1992).

3. Even with greater conservation and recycling, there is an increasing local, national, and global demand for wood products.

Figure 8.1 Ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest during the horse and buggy days were a grass matrix with individual, clumps, and stringers of large and variously-sized trees of almost exclusively ponderosa pine (see chapter 4).

We may never fully understand the complexities of ecosystems, but we know enough to manage Southwestern forests more appropriately than in the past. We have learned much from research, from the public, and from our past mistakes–and our successes! Over time, we will learn more and can adjust accordingly (adaptive management). Some of the suggestions presented here are already being practiced by Forest Service land managers.

Although historic conditions may not be "desired conditions" and may not be feasible to re-create over large areas, they do provide us much insight. There is a growing consensus that forests have become overcrowded and that there are too many small- and medium-size trees. Moreover, in some parts of the Southwest, there are few, old forests of large trees.

As discussed in preceding chapters, some past management, particularly fire exclusion, overgrazing, and high-grade logging, has led to unhealthy conditions in some areas. However, it is important for resource managers and the public to understand that other practices over the past century, including improvement selection cutting and the thinning of small trees, have not harmed and have probably improved the condition of the forest over time.

In discussing forest health among resource professionals and the public, we (the Forest Service) should accurately describe forest conditions and not overstate the case. Forests in some portions of the western United States have experienced dramatic episodes of tree mortality in recent years. For the most part, forests in the Southwest have remained green and appear healthy to many people.

We should keep in mind, however, that the large-scale tree mortality seen elsewhere had occurred during or following extended periods of drought (Wickman 1992). Overall precipitation in the Southwest has been well above average the past couple of decades. But given the unprecedented tree densities throughout much of the Southwestern forests, what might happen during the next extended drought? Did the next drought cycle begin in 1996?

The following recommendations are the informed professional judgments of the assessment team. Although the team believes these actions should be taken where and when appropriate, these recommendations are not policy statements directing managers to specific decisions. For the most part, these recommendations are compatible with guidelines recently developed for management of the northern goshawk and the Mexican spotted owl (Reynolds et al. 1992, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 1995). They are primarily intended for ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests, which make up the great majority of Southwestern forested lands. Spruce–fir ecosystems are thought to be relatively unaffected by past management; for the most part, these forests appear to be in good condition and functioning normally. Sound management activities are appropriate in spruce-fir forests; but, the majority of this forest type occurs in designated wilderness with limited management opportunities. Most of the recommendations discussed here, such as low thinning, also apply to pinyon-juniper woodlands, which have also been greatly affected by human activity. Recommendations for specific management situations, such as management of aspen and riparian areas, channel stabilization, recreation, exotic plants, and soil amendment, are also included.

DENSITY MANAGEMENT

The long-term condition of Southwestern forests can often be improved with prudent thinning. In most areas, the emphasis should be on "low thinning" or "thinning from below." Often, a combination of mechanical thinning and prescribed fire can be used to work toward a desired condition.

As in the past, thinning will include both commercial (sawtimber, pulp, and multi-product sales) and non-commercial treatments. The focus should be on removing smaller trees, and leaving a high proportion of the larger trees in most areas.

As a silvicultural term, "low thinning" means removal of trees from the lower crown classes. In some locations, this can simply involve removal of trees from the understory (Smith 1962), but in many areas it can involve removal of some overstory trees as well. Suppressed, intermediate, and often some co-dominant trees are cut; dominant and at least some co-dominant trees are left. Simply stated, the largest trees are left, and other trees are thinned as appropriate. This approach is described as focusing on what is left (the residual) instead of what is cut (the removal). In many respects, low thinning is the opposite of high grading in which the best trees are removed first and the inferior trees are left.

Prudent thinning has numerous benefits. The growth rate of the remaining trees usually improves significantly. Obtaining large trees is a function of time and site productivity, but also of competition. Similarly, by reducing competition, the longevity of the oldest and largest trees may increase (Barclay and Layton 1990). A more open canopy allows better growth of grasses, forbs, and shrubs, which, in turn, helps maintain forest soils. Some insect and disease damage can be averted, and the risk from fire reduced. The long-term appearance of the forest can be enhanced–possibly the greatest benefit of all, at least from a human perspective.

Well-thinned, relatively open areas scattered across the landscape, interspersed with denser, less intensively managed areas, would provide a wide array of wildlife habitat, and would be a forest less prone to large-scale catastrophic wildfire. There are some documented cases where large wildfires have behaved as non-destructive ground fires as they moved into thinned forests (Barbouletos and Morelan 1995).

Many thinning projects in the past, especially non-commercial thinning of young stands, achieved rather uniform spacing, resulting in a "tree-farm" appearance. Spacing should be highly variable to favor the best trees and provide more heterogeneous conditions.

Good selection of residual trees is a simple practice that should counter the effects of past high grading. Terms like "crop-tree selection," developed for timber production, can have much broader application; trees can be selected as future wildlife snags. Selection and marking greatly affect the outcome of treatments and, ultimately, what the forest will look like long into the future.

Thinning by hand (cutting, chopping, grubbing) is a useful tool due to its selective nature and minimal ground disturbance. However, since it has a high labor cost per acre, it is usually suitable for initial treatment of small trees in light to moderate densities or in areas where mechanical treatments with heavy equipment are not acceptable.

Within timber sale areas, to return stand densities to the level of historic variability, it will be necessary to remove at least 90 percent of the volume in the form of small trees (see figure 5.10). Guidelines should allow flexibility to account for site differences and conditions, but in most areas the majority of the larger trees should be left.

An aggressive program for thinning small-diameter trees is required to reduce stand densities. Much progress in this area would be achieved if the majority of the Knutson-Vandenberg (K-V) funds generated by most timber sales were used for thinning. Additional sources of funding and channeling as much existing funding as possible into thinning dense, small-diameter stands would further improve the condition. Thinning small-diameter trees will either require a non-commercial entry or market development.

If sawtimber were harvested at a sustainable growth rate, the acreage of pulpwood harvest and small-diameter thinning were increased, and prescribed burning activities were greatly increased, there should be significant improvements in forest conditions within a few decades.

If we take this approach (and explain what we are doing), we are apt to gain more widespread public support. Over time, this should lead to greater efficiency in developing and implementing projects, and, ultimately, more rapid progress in restoring forest ecosystem health.

Efforts to improve forest conditions could be assisted by the development and application of new technologies in the Southwest, including the manufacture of engineered wood products and the biomass industry. Creating new markets for the vast amounts of pulpwood and other small-dimension material available in the Southwestern Region could be aggressively pursued.

The agency hopes that the increased attention on forest health, both nationally and regionally, will allow more flexibility and help alleviate budgetary constraints. Some forest health treatments will be below-cost in the short term but, considering long-term values of forests, both commodity and non-commodity, will be sound investments. Forest condition and commodity products need to be equally weighted.

EVEN-AGED VS UNEVEN-AGED MANAGEMENT

True even-age management has seldom been practiced in the Southwest. The great majority of stands, including most of those that have received silvicultural treatment in the last 20 years, contain multiple age and size classes. Thus, articulation of the use of even-aged management regimes in the forest plans is somewhat inaccurate and, in some respects, self-defeating. The terms "even-aged" and "uneven-aged" are scale-dependent, relative to the size of the area, and may not be the best terminology (Bradshaw 1992). Generally, a better approach is to work with and enhance existing stand conditions rather than to rigidly adhere to an idealized system.

COMBINATION SILVICULTURAL METHODS

Both even-aged and uneven-aged silviculture have application and often can be used in combination. For example, when group selection is chosen for certain objectives, it is often appropriate to use low thinning between the groups to achieve a wider array of benefits.

Individual tree selection has some important advantages over group selection. Selection of individual trees to be left after harvesting can improve stand quality and eugenics, as discussed previously. Growth rates typically increase throughout a stand after individual-tree selection thinning, whereas only trees on the edges of the groups (or within groups if some were left) show any release. Species composition can be manipulated with either method, but with individual-tree selection, this can often be accomplished more directly. For example, the proportion of ponderosa pine can be increased in many mixed conifer forests by selecting white fir and Douglas-fir for removal. Also, basal area can be lowered to encourage pine regeneration. Stand susceptibility to bark beetles can often be lowered using individual-tree selection or by group selection augmented with thinning between groups.

As discussed previously, more open conditions achieved by low thinning can reduce susceptibility to wildfire, and can make it more feasible (i.e., less risky) to reintroduce fire with prescribed burning. In some instances, however, open conditions can make it more difficult to execute a prescribed fire. On the other hand, group selection which opens a canopy more than individual selection often provides more heterogeneity in stand structure and increases habitat diversity. Similarly, the openings created usually encourage the development of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. These effects can be achieved, although to a lesser degree, by varying spacing with single-tree selection. Group selection can also be used to regenerate shade-intolerant species like ponderosa pine and aspen.

Damage to the remaining trees from felling or skidding is usually less using group selection, although in most areas damage can be minimized with either method (Figure 8.2). Road densities needed for management are probably similar for both methods. Individual tree selection is an ineffective method for long-term control of dwarf mistletoe. Group selection appears to have promise in this respect because of the "groupy" spatial distribution of the parasite; however, in most cases regeneration within the openings will be exposed to infected trees on the edges of the group (or reserve trees left within the groups).

Figure 8.2 Even large-sized material can be handled with horse and small-equipment; these heritage methods may still be useful for operating at low cost and without damage to the soil and and residual trees

SLASH, WOODY DEBRIS, AND SNAGS

Timber harvest and other forest thinning typically generates large quantities of slash and thereby creates numerous problems. Non-commercial thinning of dense stands can result in very high fuel loads, making the sites hazardous in wildfire or prescribed fire. Fresh slash, particularly in ponderosa pine forests, can lead to rapid buildups of bark beetle populations, especially Ips species, which may then attack and kill green standing trees. To reduce this potential, thinning is best carried out from July to December (ideally in mid- to late summer), allowing the slash to dry out and making it less favorable for the beetles (Parker 1991). Lopping and scattering is recommended for some sites, particularly when thinning is done in the spring. This practice hastens drying of the slash and generally improves the appearance of a site, although it increases treatment costs. Public fuelwood gathering can reduce the amount of green slash, reducing both fuel loading and the chance for beetle outbreaks. Large slash piles also have a visual impact.

Although large amounts of slash can create problems, it is becoming evident that coarse woody debris has great importance for forest soils and wildlife habitat. Management recommendations, using ectomycorrhizae as indicators, have been developed for forests in the Rocky Mountains (Harvey et al. 1987, Graham et al. 1994). These suggest leaving roughly 10 to 15 tons per acre of coarse woody debris after timber harvesting to maintain long-term productivity. Some ponderosa pine sites may require less material, whereas some mixed conifer and spruce–fir sites may benefit from larger amounts.

Snags, essential habitat for many species, including cavity-dependent species, are deficient in many forested areas. Rigorous efforts in the past to fell dead trees to remove ignition sources, as well as efforts to harvest declining trees before they die, are largely responsible for snag deficiencies. These policies have been modified in recent years; over time, we can expect to have higher snag densities in forests.

Although not recommended as a widespread practice, snag recruitment may be appropriate on some sites (Figure 8.3). For example, large, dwarf mistletoe-infected trees might be selectively killed to make snags in areas where significant amounts of young regeneration can be protected from infection.

Figure 8.3 Most wildlife cavities are constructed in the decayed wood of old-growth trees. Second-growth trees, even while still alive, can be inoculated with wood-decay fungi to accelerate their developement into desirable wildlife trees. In this experimantal demonstration project, a hole is drilled into the upper bole of a large tree, a plastic pipe is inserted (to retard wound closure), and the tree is inoculated with a wooden dowel.

SALVAGE

Although often linked with the forest health issue, salvage is primarily an economic activity. Salvage sales supply wood to mills and benefit local economies; but they generally do little to improve forest conditions, except for reducing fuel loading. However, K-V funds can and should be used to pay for non-commercial thinning, tree planting, prescribed fire, and other restoration treatments. Salvage operations need to be done in a way that minimizes soil damage and loss, and leaves an adequate number of standing snags and fallen logs.

PRESCRIBED FIRE

Significant increase in the use of prescribed fire is needed in appropriate areas on Southwestern forests. Prescribed fires can be natural or management-ignited. In most parts of the Southwest and until very recently, prescribed fire has mostly been used to burn slash piles and for small broadcast burns. A increase in the number of acres of broadcast burning would enhance forest health.

The potential benefits from broadcast burning are numerous and include–reduction in fuel loads; stimulation of understory vegetation including grasses, forbs, and shrubs; thinning of overcrowded stands; and nutrient cycling. Over time, prudent use of prescribed burning could reduce the damage caused by wildfire, as well as the costs associated with fire suppression (Moody et al. 1992).

Thinning stands with fire can potentially be done at a much lower cost than with mechanical thinning, although past attempts to do this in the Southwest have met with varying degrees of success (Harrington and Sackett 1990). Generally, fire increases structural heterogeneity and diversity, creating mosaics within stands and over larger areas. It recycles nutrients for use by surviving trees and new vegetation. No other silvicultural technique fully mimics the ecological effects of historical fire regimes.

Burning tends to promote natural regeneration of ponderosa pine, providing favorable seedbeds and enhancing the growing environment for survival (Harrington and Sackett 1990). Repeated burning of the same area would be expected to maintain a sparse understory and relatively open forest conditions by killing some of the previously established regeneration.

A few studies indicate a tendency for understory burning to reduce stand dwarf mistletoe infection levels (Harrington and Hawksworth 1990); significant amounts of crown scorch are probably needed to achieve this effect.

One of the obstacles to more widespread use of broadcast burning in the Southwest is the risk involved both to resources and property. In many forests, fuel loads are so high that prescribed burning alone could lead to stand-replacement fires. These areas need to be mechanically thinned first, with much of the cut stems removed from the site, before fire can be safely reintroduced. One of the other risks is to old-growth trees; their protection may require either removing accumulated duff, protecting the trees and surrounding duff with foam, or establishing a fire-line around them.

Broadcast burns are recommended following most mechanical thinning operations on ponderosa pine and lower mixed conifer sites. Generally, such fires should be designed to reduce fine fuels, leave coarser fuels, and cause minimal damage to the remaining stand. As with any prescribed burn, timing is critical. Occasionally, stands may benefit from understory burns prior to mechanical thinning, to reduce ground fuels before the additional slash is generated.

Because of crown scorch and needle fall after understory burning, fuel loads can increase to high levels within a year or two after treatment. Thus, re-burns are often needed to reduce these fuels.

Burning intervals appropriate for various forest types, based on current knowledge of natural fire history (Table 4.1), are:

Like other management practices, prescribed burning is both an art and a science. Every prescribed burn can be a learning tool; the acquired experience of practitioners is invaluable. Documentation and monitoring of prescribed burning activities and their effects is also be crucial for developing and improving burning programs.

SMOKE MANAGEMENT

Fires within forested ecosystems naturally create smoke. Smoke is or can be hazardous to those who live near burn areas, either wildfires or prescribed fires. Smoke entering the atmosphere can create hazards through visibility reductions and, in some cases, increase breathing difficulties for individuals. Smoke can also create "smoke odors" inside of homes. For individuals living within the wildland/urban interface, visible smoke clouds can also create mild or intense apprehension and fear for safety and property.

Because of these concerns, some are opposed to fire of any kind, including management-ignited fires or those naturally started through lightning. Often when fuels reduction proposals are made within the wildland/urban interface, opposition is raised during public meetings, through an appeals process, or some means of litigation. Long delays can result while fire hazard continues to increase. As the urban interface continues to grow and expand, opposition to smoke-related activities is expected to increase.

Prescribed natural fire programs are often acceptable to large segments of rural population areas as long as the "smoke duration" is relatively short. Smoke is normally tolerated if the event doesn't exceed 10 to 14 days. After this period of time, the tolerance level declines rapidly. Individuals living within larger population centers are less tolerant to smoke from any source. Despite these concerns, people should recognize that all forests will eventually burn whether management-ignited or as wildfires.

Currently the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines for smoke emissions are based upon PM-10 standards (particulate matter exceeding 10 microns). Current standards for air quality are a maximum of 150 micrograms/cubic meter of air. EPA is now studying the possibility of adopting a PM-2.5 standard. Since approximately 70 percent of the particulate emissions from fire are less than 2.5 microns in diameter, the standards proposed by EPA will provide significant challenges to the Forest Service and other users of prescribed fire.

In implementing forest health strategies, it will be important to increase the amount of acreage that can be treated for fuels reduction. The current proposal for fuels reduction projects nationally is 3,000,000 acres per year by the year 2000.

INSECT AND PATHOGEN CONSIDERATIONS

Extensive tree decline and mortality from insects and pathogens are often equated with an unhealthy forest. At the same time, dead and dying trees are important components of healthy forest ecosystems. Because the effects of forest insects and pathogens have often been and should be considered in the development of management practices, we include a brief discussion and some general recommendations in this area.

It may be useful to consider high levels of forest insect or disease activity to be an indicator of an unhealthy condition (Bennett et al. 1994). Typically, they would indicate overcrowded conditions, or, sometimes, unusual or unnatural changes in species composition.

Ecologically, some insects and pathogens appear to act as regulators of forest condition, i.e., nature's response, via feedback mechanisms, to restore previous conditions or ecological balance. In extreme cases, this process can lead to socially undesirable consequences such as large-scale tree mortality followed by catastrophic fire.

Generally, emphasis in managing forest insects and pathogens should be on prevention rather than direct suppression. Some strategies to prevent Ips beetle problems were discussed previously. Thinning can limit mortality from other bark beetles in many forest situations (Fiddler et al. 1995, Schmid and Mata 1992); it appears to be a way of preventing unacceptable damage on specific sites and, presumably, across landscapes. Thinning in mixed conifer forests, particularly where ponderosa pine can be retained, may well lessen the severity and impact of unsightly spruce budworm outbreaks.

Dwarf mistletoes present a difficult situation that should be recognized in efforts to maintain or improve forest health. Fairly aggressive efforts to control these parasites in the 1980s generated much controversy and opposition. Nevertheless, decades of research indicate that a rather aggressive approach is required for effective control in some situations (Heidmann 1983, Beatty 1986, Hawksworth and Johnson 1989). Regenerating stands and creating openings at least 20 acres in size are needed to provide effective, long-term control where infestation is severe.

Low thinning and prescribed burning may be the best ecological approach for managing dwarf mistletoes on many ponderosa pine and mixed conifer sites. It is probably best to defer many heavily infested stands from treatment. Occasionally, on recently regenerated sites, it is prudent to remove all sources of infection. In some cases, this may involve the creation of fairly extensive openings. Specific recommendations for dwarf mistletoes should be based on the characteristics of individual sites, considering the surrounding landscape.

Some sites may need to be managed in consideration of the effects of root diseases. Thinning may increase the incidence of root disease on some sites; however, this has seldom been a significant problem in the Southwest. Management recommendations tend to be very site-specific (Hagle and Goheen 1988).

Efforts should continue to limit the potential for white pine blister rust to spread to other parts of the Southwest. Working with natural host resistance may be the best approach for reducing its impact in the Sacramento Mountains. Removing diseased trees through salvage or thinning will have little value, since infection of pine occurs through an alternate host. Large-scale salvage logging of white pine might reduce genetic variation in the host population.

TREATMENT PRIORITIES

In general, treatment priorities should be established, not by focusing on where the biggest problems are (as is often suggested), but by where the greatest improvements can likely be achieved, at a reasonable cost. For example, it usually makes more sense to thin a middle-aged forest that has been thinned within the last 20–30 years than one of similar age that has never been thinned and is severely stagnated. Thinning healthy ponderosa pine stands is often more beneficial than thinning dwarf mistletoe infested stands. However, the removal of infected seed trees or residuals in newly regenerated areas should be given a high priority on many sites.

Areas where healthy ponderosa pine can be favored over fir are often excellent candidates for thinning. Inter-planting with site-compatible pine has merit, particularly on some previously logged mixed conifer sites. Creating open parklike stands of ponderosa pine should be a priority for some areas. In some locations, this could be done with one or two heavy thinnings. On other sites, it could be done gradually, using a series of treatments over 20 years or more.

Sampson et al. (1995), in a discussion of the condition of national forests throughout the inland West, eloquently states:

"These lands, so highly important for so many reasons, to so many people, deserve better care than we have been willing–as a public–to give them... If we continue to spend all our time in preparing studies and fighting over whether or not to address these treatment needs, the natural forces such as wildfire will take those decisions out of our hands..."

As part of the Southwestern Region's Forest Health Restoration Initiative (USDA Forest Service 1993b), 742,000 acres in Arizona and 583,000 acres in New Mexico, were recommended for treatment over a 5-year period. The initiative suggests this be accomplished by increasing the use of prescribed fire, reducing fire hazard in wildland/urban interfaces, and pursuing as much small-diameter thinning as possible, consistent with overall forest health.

ASPEN

Unlike conifers, aspen has a strong tendency to be self-thinning, mostly due to a number of fungal diseases. Moreover, because this species is very susceptible to wounding and subsequent introduction of pathogens, thinning is usually not recommended (Jones and Shepperd 1985, Hinds 1976). However, sapling-size aspen (less than four inches dbh) can usually be thinned without much damage to the remaining trees (Jones and Shepperd 1985) to provide small products such as latillas (i.e., small diameter roundstock used in the ceiling and roofing of traditional Southwestern homes).

A major decrease in aspen type suggests an urgent need for treatments to regenerate the species. Group selection cuts, small clearcuts which fit into the landscape, or, in some areas, prescribed fire, can be used to regenerate aspen. Although aspen readily re-sprouts following such treatments, grazing, browsing, and trampling by both wildlife and livestock can be a serious problem in establishing regeneration. Fencing is needed in many areas. Aspen could be regenerated and promoted by reducing populations of browsing animals, at least temporarily. Removal of "invading" conifer understories has been suggested as a way of maintaining aspen and may be appropriate for some areas. However, the effects of such treatment would typically be short-lived. Moreover, unlike low thinning in pine or mixed conifer forests, which largely mimics the effects of fire, the removal of conifer understories from aspen stands does not resemble natural processes.

RIPARIAN AREAS

Grazing pressure from ungulates (cattle and elk) should be reduced within degraded areas, on a site-by-site basis. Enclosures (fencing) can be used where appropriate and for a long enough period to protect plant cover, facilitate regeneration, and prevent damage to stream banks and channels. In the long term, however, we should strive for conditions where fences are not needed. Generally, any tree cutting within a riparian area would be very selective; and road construction and channel diversions would be designed to minimize adverse effects. Where opportunities exist, developed recreation sites can be moved out of sensitive riparian areas. Good riparian restoration minimizes use of structures and relies more on vegetation recovery.

CHANNEL STABILIZATION

The goal of channel stabilization is to achieve a long lasting effect with vegetation. Mechanical measures are used to supplement or accelerate stabilization, but they are not the best, long-term approach. Bed control measures, using nonporous or porous structures, are generally used to stop bed erosion or headcuts upstream. Bank treatments such as armor, flow deflectors, or flow separators stop or reverse lateral bank erosion. Flow separation structures, used only where the river system has a floodplain wide enough to allow for sediment deposition, yield the greatest benefit for riparian ecosystems (DeBano and Schmidt 1989). It may be necessary to partially or totally reconstruct a channel to meet desired geomorphic characteristics. Good channel design maintains smooth transitions of flow at all points upstream and downstream. Vegetation recovery is the key to channel stabilization.

RECREATION TOOLS

Good recreation facilities are designed to minimize resource damage. Reclamation of damaged areas (for instance, mine tailings) are a high priority in areas of visual interest. Annual hazard tree surveys identify trees with safety hazards for subsequent trimming or removal. Areas highly impacted by dispersed use, such as hunting camps, can be hardened by having their boundaries marked or fenced to prevent further expansion and to reduce the number of fire pits. Desired trails are monitored and maintained; those that have been poorly designed require closing and re-construction.

EXOTIC PLANTS

Management of exotic plants, especially those designated as noxious weeds, is essential to maintain ecosystem health, particularly within forest grasslands and riparian areas. Even with strategic planning and project implementation, the expansion and spread of aggressive weeds will continue. Management and treatment of exotic plants is and will continue to be a never ending process. As a first step, all noxious weed infestations are identified and mapped. Risk assessments are performed and used as a baseline for monitoring. Integrated weed management programs and plans are developed and implemented (with appropriate NEPA analysis) to address situations prior to infestations getting further out of control. Control efforts must be designed to protect native vegetation, achieve desired conditions, and maintain biodiversity. Management areas are designed to treat infested ecosystems regardless of jurisdictional boundaries. To facilitate this process, memorandums of understanding (MOU) with other federal and state agencies, county governments and private landowners can be developed and implemented.

SOIL AMENDMENT TECHNIQUES

Scattering slash and woody debris is used to add nutrients to the soil, as discussed previously. Research on the use of fertilizer to improve the status of nutrients and plant growth has shown mixed results. Fertilizers should be limited to sites where an analysis indicates a nutrient deficiency and where soil moisture conditions are favorable. The application of treated municipal sludge as a soil amendment is becoming more popular, although opportunities to use sludge may be limited by its availability. Sludge has been tested in New Mexico where it has been used successfully to reduce runoff and improve plant growth (Aguilar and Loftin 1992).